Co-Teaching Models

How co-taught classrooms work — and how a paraprofessional fits without becoming the third teacher

Why this brief

Co-teaching — a general education teacher and a special education teacher (or specialist) sharing an inclusive classroom — is one of the most-used inclusion structures in U.S. schools. Friend and Cook's six co-teaching models are the field standard; many schools use some version of them, often without naming which model is in use on which day. Paras are frequently in co-taught classrooms but their role in the model is often undefined, underprepared, and unevenly understood across staff.

This brief covers what co-teaching is, the six standard models, what the para does in each, the common bad fit (the para becomes a third teacher running a parallel mini-classroom), how to coordinate across two teachers, and what to do when the model isn't working. It connects closely with brief 12.02 (Working with the Gen-Ed Teacher) and brief 04.07 (Promoting Independence).

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| Co-teaching has paras in it but isn't designed around themFriend and Cook's models describe two certified teachers. Where the para fits is often improvised. The strongest co-teaching teams clarify the para's role explicitly; the weakest assume it. Brief 12.01 covers the para-teacher relationship overall; this brief is specifically about co-taught classrooms. |

1\. What co-teaching is

Co-teaching is two professional educators sharing instructional responsibility for one classroom. Most commonly:

A general education teacher (content expert) and a special education teacher (specially designed instruction expert).

Less often: a general education teacher and an ESL/ELD specialist; a general education teacher and a speech-language pathologist; two special education teachers in some specialized programs.

The structure exists to make general education accessible to students with disabilities (and sometimes ELLs) without pulling them out of the classroom. The model has substantial research support when implemented well; weak implementations produce "one teach, one float" patterns that look like co-teaching but aren't.

1.1 Required elements of strong co-teaching

Shared planning time — the two teachers plan instruction together regularly.

Shared instructional responsibility — both teach, not one teaches and one watches.

Specially designed instruction is delivered, not just supported — the SpEd teacher does SDI with students who need it, embedded in the lesson rather than as separate pull-out.

Both teachers know all students.

Mutual respect and parity in the room — students and visitors should not be able to identify which is the "real" teacher and which is the "helper."

Many U.S. classrooms are labeled co-taught without these elements. The labels and the practice diverge.

2\. The six co-teaching models (Friend & Cook)

Six standard configurations. Strong co-teaching teams use multiple models across days and lessons; weak teams default to one (usually one teach / one assist) every day.

2.1 One Teach, One Observe

One teacher leads instruction; the other observes and collects data on specific students or aspects of the lesson. Used briefly and purposefully — not as a default arrangement.

Para's role

Often supports specific students or facilitates the observation.

Doesn't usually take a lead role here.

2.2 One Teach, One Assist (sometimes called One Teach, One Drift)

One teacher leads; the other circulates to support students. The most common — and most overused — configuration. When this is the default, the SpEd teacher often becomes a high-paid floating helper rather than a co-teacher.

Para's role

Often duplicates the special education teacher's circulating role, which is muddled.

In strong teams, the para may be running a specific support program for a specific student during this format.

The risk: para and SpEd teacher end up doing the same thing, which wastes both.

2.3 Station Teaching

Content is divided into stations; teachers each take one or more, students rotate. Each teacher teaches their content multiple times to different groups.

Para's role

Often runs an independent practice station — students working on previously-taught content, with the para supporting practice.

Sometimes runs a teacher-designed review station.

Should not run a teaching station for new content; that requires certified instruction.

2.4 Parallel Teaching

Class is split in half; both teachers teach the same content simultaneously to their respective halves. Smaller group sizes, more student participation.

Para's role

May support one of the two halves with a specific student or small subset.

Doesn't usually take a teaching role.

In schools where the para has the right credentials, sometimes leads a third group during similar instruction — but this depends on district authorization and isn't typical paraprofessional scope.

2.5 Alternative Teaching

One teacher works with the larger group; the other works with a small group on pre-teaching, re-teaching, enrichment, or specific intervention. The small group composition shifts based on need; it's not a permanent low-group/high-group split.

Para's role

May support the larger group while the SpEd teacher works with the small group.

May support the small group as a second adult.

Should not lead the small group's specially designed instruction; that's the SpEd teacher's role.

2.6 Team Teaching

Both teachers teach simultaneously — taking turns leading, building on each other's points, modeling discussion. Highest-fidelity model when it works; requires substantial planning time and strong relationship.

Para's role

Supports specific students; may shadow one for behavior or instructional support.

Doesn't usually take a lead role.

This format works best when the para's role has been pre-discussed.

3\. The para's general posture in a co-taught classroom

Across all six models, the para's posture should be:

Supplemental, not primary. The two teachers are the instructional leads; the para supports.

Specific, not general. "Supporting Marcus" or "running fluency practice with Maria" is more useful than "helping out."

Faded over time. Where possible, the para's involvement decreases as the student becomes more independent (cross-ref 04.07).

Coordinated with both teachers. The para coordinates with the SpEd teacher (often the supervising teacher) and is a guest in the gen-ed teacher's room (cross-ref 12.02).

Visible but not central. The para is in the room and engaged; not invisible, not running things.

3.1 The third-teacher trap

The most common bad fit: the para becomes a third teacher running a parallel mini-classroom in the corner. Signs:

The para teaches a separate mini-lesson at a back table for one or two students with IEPs.

Those students are pulled out of the rest of the lesson without coordination.

The gen-ed teacher and the SpEd teacher don't have visibility into what the para is teaching.

The student is increasingly dependent on the para's instruction.

The student misses the actual classroom instruction the IEP says they have access to.

This pattern is well-meaning and produces poor outcomes. Cross-ref Foundation Reference Part III for the Giangreco research on parallel mini-classrooms.

4\. Coordination across teachers and the para

Coordination matters more in co-taught classrooms than in single-teacher rooms because there are more adults and more relationships. Practical structures:

4.1 Pre-period check-in

Even 60 seconds before students arrive — "Today's plan is X; you're with Marcus during the warm-up; we'll do alternative teaching after" — gives the para clarity.

4.2 Written task assignment

As described in brief 03.03 and 12.01 — what model is being used, what the para is doing, what materials, what data.

4.3 In-period signals

Both teachers, plus the para, need quick signals for:

"This isn't working — change to X."

"Marcus needs help."

"Take this group; I'll take that one."

"Step in."

"Step out."

4.4 End-of-period or end-of-day debrief

Even briefly. What worked, what to adjust, what's next.

4.5 Weekly planning

Strong co-teaching teams plan weekly. Para input matters at this level — the para sees the same students across days and has data the weekly meeting needs.

5\. Whose direction does the para follow?

This question gets confused often. The general answer:

Day-to-day instructional direction comes from the supervising teacher (typically the SpEd teacher of record).

In the co-taught classroom moment, both teachers can give specific guidance about what's needed.

Conflicts between the two teachers should not be resolved by the para choosing sides; the para asks the supervising teacher (or both teachers together).

Disciplinary or behavioral situations involving students follow the BIP; both teachers are part of implementation.

5.1 When the gen-ed teacher gives direction the SpEd teacher hasn't sanctioned

Common: "Can you take Marcus out and work on his math facts in the hall?" If this isn't part of the plan, decline politely. "Let me check with Ms. Allen — that's outside what she had me doing today." Don't relocate students or instructional context without coordination.

5.2 When the SpEd teacher gives direction that conflicts with the gen-ed teacher's preferences

Surface to the SpEd teacher; let the two teachers work it out. Don't be the messenger of conflict.

6\. The Specially Designed Instruction question

Specially Designed Instruction (SDI) is the heart of special education and is, by IDEA, the certified educator's responsibility. Paras supplement SDI; they don't deliver it as the primary or sole provider. (Cross-ref 02.06.)

6.1 In a co-taught classroom

SDI is typically delivered by the SpEd teacher embedded within the gen-ed lesson. The para may support the student receiving SDI but doesn't usually deliver it. Examples:

SpEd teacher delivers a brief mini-lesson on multi-digit subtraction strategy to the small group; para supports practice afterward. This is OK.

Para teaches the multi-digit subtraction strategy from scratch to a small group while the SpEd teacher works with another group. This is generally outside scope.

Para runs a structured-literacy intervention program designed and trained by the SpEd teacher and overseen with regular fidelity checks. This is often appropriate, but the certified teacher remains the responsible party for instructional design.

6.2 When you're being asked to do SDI

Don't refuse abruptly. "I want to make sure this is set up right — can we walk through what you'd like me to do?" gives the supervising teacher a chance to clarify or to recognize the scope creep. Many teachers don't know where the line is and are not asking deliberately. Surface and let the team decide.

7\. Supporting students with IEPs in co-taught classrooms

In a strong co-taught classroom, students with IEPs participate in the same instruction as peers, with accommodations and small-group SDI embedded. The para's role often involves:

Pre-teaching key vocabulary or concepts before the lesson.

Providing accommodations during instruction (graphic organizer, calculator, audio version).

Sitting near the student during direct instruction without sitting on top of them.

Stepping back during peer interactions.

Supporting the student's response during whole-class participation ("Marcus, what do you think? Want me to read the prompt with you?").

Running small-group practice when assigned.

Documenting prompt level, accommodation use, and progress on IEP goals.

Facilitating peer connections.

Modeling expected behavior and engagement.

Stepping out of the classroom for related services when scheduled.

8\. Students without IEPs in co-taught classrooms

In a co-taught classroom, the SpEd teacher can support any student, but the para's role is more constrained. Common practice:

Para supports students named in their assignment.

Para may support other students in passing as the gen-ed teacher directs.

Para does not typically provide intensive, one-on-one instructional support to students without IEPs.

Para does not become the homeroom helper for the gen-ed teacher's classroom management.

If you find yourself spending most of your time supporting students without IEPs while the students you're assigned to are unsupported, that's a misalignment to surface to the supervising teacher.

9\. When the co-teaching isn't working

Common patterns of co-teaching breakdown the para can notice:

Same model every day (almost always one teach, one assist).

The SpEd teacher rarely teaches; mostly circulates.

No shared planning time.

The gen-ed teacher and the SpEd teacher operate as separate adults rather than as co-instructors.

Students with IEPs cluster in one corner of the room with the para.

Students with IEPs don't access the actual lesson.

The SpEd teacher is treated as a guest, not a peer.

Conflicts between the two teachers about pace, content, or behavior.

The para has unclear or conflicting direction.

9.1 What to do

Surface to the supervising teacher. "I want to make sure I'm being most useful in this room. Can we talk about how to adjust?"

Document patterns. "In the last two weeks, we've used one teach / one assist every day; Marcus has been at the back table with me for most of math; he hasn't engaged with the gen-ed lesson."

Don't try to fix it alone. Co-teaching breakdown is structural and requires the team to address.

If significant, escalate to admin or the case manager. The students' access depends on functional co-teaching.

10\. When the para moves between rooms

Some paras work in multiple co-taught classrooms across the day. Coordination challenges multiply:

Different teachers have different norms, models, and communication styles.

The para's effectiveness depends on quick context-switching.

Some students are in multiple rooms; consistency across paras and rooms matters.

10.1 What helps

Brief check-in at the start of each period.

Written task assignment that names model and role for each block.

Time built into the schedule for transitions.

End-of-day debrief with the supervising teacher pulling threads together.

A consistent log the para keeps across rooms.

11\. Common pitfalls

Becoming the third teacher running a parallel mini-classroom.

Defaulting to one teach / one assist every day.

Hovering over the student with the IEP rather than stepping back.

Letting the student lose access to the real lesson because they're with the para.

Working on instruction the supervising teacher hasn't approved.

Resolving conflicts between the two teachers by choosing sides.

Not asking what model is being used today.

Treating the gen-ed teacher's room as a place to run separate SpEd programming without their visibility.

Shifting roles invisibly across the day without surfacing the unclarity.

Letting the para's relationship with the student dominate the student's relationship with peers.

12\. Resources

Foundational

Friend & Cook — Interactions: Collaboration Skills for School Professionals — Pearson — Standard text on co-teaching.

Marilyn Friend — co-teaching resources — marilynfriend.com

Practice

CEEDAR Center — Co-teaching practices — ceedar.education.ufl.edu — Federally funded resources for educator preparation.

IRIS Center — Co-teaching modules — iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu

PowerOfTwo — co-teaching planning tools — powerof2.org

Cross-references

Brief 02.06 — Specially Designed Instruction (SDI) — this library

Brief 04.07 — Promoting Independence — this library

Brief 12.01 — Working with the Supervising Teacher — this library

Brief 12.02 — Working with the Gen-Ed Teacher — this library

Foundation Reference Part III — Helping vs. Hovering — this library

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